Relevant Theories of Learning

Definitions:
Theory: A theory is a system of ideas attempting to explain a group of phenomena, such as the process of learning. From: Teaching in further education. 4th edition. L.B.Curzon.

Learning: A superficial dictionary definition might be: Knowledge acquired by study. There are many more specific definitions provided by various philosophers and educational psychologists. L.B. Curron derived the following statement to define learning as:

the apparent modification of a persons behaviour through his activities and experiences, so that his knowledge, skills and attitudes, including modes of adjustment, towards his environment are changed, more or less permanently.

It is obvious that not all behaviour is learned. For example, a baby's crying is not learned. Some psychologists refer to 'prepared learning' and 'unprepared learning'. Prepared learning is based upon observations that we are biologically prepared for certain types of learning that are important for our survival such as walking and talking. Unprepared learning is a reference to the type of learning that is not immediately relevant to survival such as learning to read or to perform complex tasks.

Changes in behaviour that result from unprepared learning would generally require motivational support such as that provided by educational establishments engaged in providing post-compulsory education.

Relevant: The term 'relevant' can, in this context, be defined as

that which is pertinent or applicable to students in further and higher education
. i.e. The post-compulsory sector.

What are these Relevant Theories of Learning?

Educational psychology is one branch of a number of specialised branches of psychology. In general it is concerned with 'What is the nature of learning?' 'How do we learn?' 'How does motivation affect learning?' 'How do we remember and why do we forget?'

A number of 'schools of learning theory' have emerged. These include:

  • Behaviourism and neo-behaviourism
  • Gestalt
  • Cognitive
  • Humanistic

For the sake of this brief paper I will be looking at just a few examples from the many theories of learning and instruction that appear to be relevant to my own teaching experience.

Behaviourism (E.Thorndike)

Thorndike's theory consists of 3 laws. The primary law (law of effect ) can be summarised as: 'an act which results in an animal's experiencing satisfaction in a given situation will generally become associated with that situation, so that when it recurs the act will also be likely to recur'.

The theory represents the original stimulus-response (S-R) framework of behavioural psychology. The classic example of this is a cat learning to escape from a puzzle box by pressing a lever inside the box. The cat learns to associate pressing the lever (S) with the opening of the door (R). Satisfaction is achieved by escape from the box.

Thorndike's theories stressed that external reward is a more effective factor than punishment in the modification of a learner's behaviour. His theories also suggested the importance of 'doing' and of repetition in the learning process. They also serve to remind teachers of the importance of motivation in the preparation for learning and of the teacher's role in contributing towards a learner's motivation.

These theories underpin basic teaching activity that would include lesson planning, ensuring an orderly classroom, providing clear learning objectives, progress from simple to more complex concepts, the importance of practice and repetition, strengthening learner motivation, ensuring learners are aware of the significance of the subject matter and providing them with an ultimately satisfying outcome.

Gestalt (Wertheimer)

The German word 'Gestalt' means a configuration, structure or pattern. The essence of Gestaltist psychology is that 'the whole is greater than the sum of its parts'. It is the total structured form of an individual's mental experience with which a teacher should be concerned.

Wertheimer suggested that a coherent whole possesses properties which are not discoverable from its isolated parts. For example, a piece of music is a lot more than the notes played by the instruments involved.

Wertheimer said that productive thinking, leading to the solution for a problem, involves a process, not a single act. The process begins with a situation and a goal that cannot, at a given moment, be reached. The learner's thinking leads to an urge to bridge this gap and achieve the desired goal. This thinking is informed by the learner's past experience and two individuals may present different reactions to a problem depending on their past experiences.

The concept of 'insight' is at the heart of Gestalt psychology. The term 'insight' is used by Gestaltists in a very specific manner. Insight is said to be 'the result of a learner's unforeseen reorganisation by the learner of their field of experience.' The learner experiences the classic 'flash of inspiration' or 'Eureka moment' as 'the penny drops'. This instantaneous perception of how parts relate to a whole is well known in the history of scientific discovery but it should not be confused with the random lucky guess.

The Gestaltist approach to learning may emphasise the importance of structuring lessons and exercises. These may require the learner to find a path to a solution for a problem and to see that their efforts are directed towards this solution. Learning may be facilitated by providing an 'overview' of the course and how the course topics relate to one another. Presenting scraps of disconnected information in a lesson should be avoided. Also the importance of practice is stressed by the Gestaltists.

It is also very important for the teacher to be aware of the individual needs of learners who will each have unique past experiences and thus each have unique needs.

Cognitive

Cognitivism is about how we gain knowledge and use that knowledge to guide decisions.

Cognitive Load Theory (J. Sweller)

This theory suggests that learning takes place more readily if conditions match human cognitive capabilities. For example, human short term memory is limited in the number of elements that it can carry at any one time and human long term memory consists of 'sophisticated structures that permit us to perceive, think and solve problems'. These structures are known as 'schemas'. Learning results in a change in the schematic structures of long term memory.

From a teaching perspective material presented must first be processed in the working or short-term memory. Teaching and instruction should be designed to reduce the load upon the short term working memory. Cognitive load theory is concerned with reducing the short term memory load in order to facilitate changes in the schematic structures held in long term memory.

These theories apply significantly to the presentation of cognitively complex or technically challenging material. Cognitive load theory suggests that effective learning material must keep the cognitive load of learners at a minimum during the learning process.

Humanistic (Maslow, Rogers)

The humanistic psychologists said that education has the task of 'helping each person to become the best that they are able to become'. Maslow developed a theory of 'self-actualisation' based upon the person as a whole being allowed to grow to their 'optimal stature'.

Rogers' humanistic approach to education places emphasis on feeling, thinking and the recognition of a learner's personal values and interpersonal communication. The task of the teacher is the provision of conditions in which learning can be facilitated, the outstanding quality of the teacher being empathy.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

In studying motivation Maslow defined a hierarchy of needs which basically says that a persons behaviour in the classroom, workplace or elsewhere, will be dominated by those needs which have the greatest potency. This hierarchy is often represented as a pyramid with fundamental physiological needs (food, drink, warmth etc.) are at the base. Next level up we have safety and security needs. At the third level we have belonging needs such as friendship, being part of a group, affection etc. The fourth level is the requirement for self-esteem which relates to competence, adequacy, attention and recognition. At the very top of the pyramid is the need for self-fulfilment or self-actualisation.

This model clearly shows how basic needs must be met before effective learning can take place. It also serves to explain how short term motivational issues may occur when certain key needs of a learner are not being met. Rogers' Experiential Learning

Carl Rogers shares much thinking on education with Maslow. He opposes conventional education and learning which is primarily cognitive and calls for 'student-centred education' based on active discovery. Rogers believes that all humans have a natural propensity towards learning and the role of the teacher is to facilitate this learning. This would involve:

  • Providing a positive environment for learning
  • Clarifying the purposes of the learner(s)
  • Organising learning resources and making these available to learners
  • Balancing intellectual and emotional components of learning and
  • Sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not dominating.

Significant learning takes place when the subject matter is perceived by the learner as relevant to their own purposes. Much significant learning is achieved in doing as in practical exercises and investigative work and problem solving. The most socially-useful learning in the modern world is the learning of the process of learning, learning to learn. Conclusion

In this short essay I have focussed upon just a few key areas of educational theory that have been relevant to my own work teaching various age-groups in further education. The development of understanding how we learn is ongoing with research taking place in many areas that are relevant to my teaching work (e.g. how to teach computer programming). An example of how theories may be applied practically might be the use of cognitive load theory in regard to the teaching of technically challenging material, which is what I am engaged in. An awareness of Maslow's hierarchy of needs is also clearly relevant and the effects of these needs not being adequately met (e.g. not enough sleep) can be immediately apparent in a student's behaviour (ie. they fall asleep).

References

  1. Teaching in Further Education: by L.B.Curzon (4th edition. Cassell 1994)
  2. Teaching training and learning: by Ian Reece and Stephen Walker (2nd edition. Business education publishers 1994).
  3. Explorations in Learning & Instruction: Website: http://tip.psychology.org/
  4. Guide to Theories of Learning: Website: http://commhum.mccneb.edu/Philos/learntheo.htm