E-Learning: Failure, Best Practices and Future Promise

A personal view.

Introduction

There are numerous examples of technologies used for many years in traditional, pedagogical, teacher-led classrooms. These include boards, markers, lighting, desks, chairs and much more. Without these basic tools and facilities teaching and learning, in a classroom context, could not take place. In this paper I am focussing upon the use of what might be called 'modern' technologies that make use of electronics in some form.

Human knowledge is expanding faster than ever before, supported by the use of technology and communications. As this trend continues the ability to memorise facts is becoming increasingly less important whereas the ability to locate and utilise information for analysis and to inform decisions is becoming increasingly critical.

Technology in Education

An example of a more modern technology that has seen extensive use in education and instruction is film. In 1922, Thomas Edison predicted that the motion picture would replace textbooks in the classroom. (Rosenberg M.J., 2001) His prediction was plainly wrong but film did become the first example of e-learning technology. It was used extensively during World War II to reach service people all over the world, providing consistent and thorough instruction through a medium that is both engaging and popular. Instruction films were provided on many topics from personal hygiene and avoiding infections to weapons maintenance.

Public Information Films are another example of how film was used to teach people specific topics such as public health, energy saving techniques, road safety and more. These would originally have been shown in cinemas alongside the newsreels and main feature films of the time. Television meant that these educational films could be viewed in the home and the classroom. Many thought that television and video would mean the end for teacher-led classes but, again, this has not happened.

One of the main reasons why television has not taken over from the teacher is the lack of interaction. This is one essential aspect of teaching that televised instruction cannot provide.

What is E-Learning?

There are many, varied definitions of the term 'e-learning'. Here are just a few:

learning facilitated and supported through the use of information and communications technology, e-learning can cover a spectrum of activities from supported learning, to blended learning (the combination of traditional and e-learning practices), to learning that is entirely online. Whatever the technology, however, learning is the vital element. ...
(CMS Glossary).
Learning activities based on any electronic format.
(Letter E Teaching Terms)
E-learning most often means an approach to facilitate and enhance learning through the use of devices based on computer and communications technology. Such devices would include personal computers, CDROMs, Digital Television, P.D.A.s and Mobile Phones. Communications technology enables the use of the Internet, email, discussion forums, and collaborative software.
(Wikipedia)




There are 2 common factors that appear in all definitions of e-learning. These are:

  1. E-Learning involves some aspect of ICT (this relates to the 'e' in e-learning)
  2. E-Learning is used as part of a developmental process (i.e. Learning)
(Fischer T., Grau G., Winkler M., Weiss M., 2002)

The term e-learning is most often used to refer to the use of electronic delivery methods that would include computers, networks, CD-ROMs, DVDs, video-conferences, web-sites, forums, knowledge bases, portals and much more.

E-Learning History

As already noted, E-Learning really started with the use of instructional films. These were originally developed for and by the American military. Their effectiveness meant that this approach was quickly adopted elsewhere leading to the development of Public Information Films which were found to be an effective way of communicating simple instructions to a vast number of people who may be located almost anywhere.

The need for interactivity, wherein the learner had some control over their learning experience, underpinned the development of computer based training (CBT). The widespread availability of the personal computer has supported the development of ever-more sophisticated and engaging forms of CBT. There have been numerous hurdles to overcome such as the ever changing computer technologies, technology limitations (such as speed and graphics capabilities) and the rapid developments in knowledge requirements that have rendered many CBT programmes obsolete before reaching the market place.

The development of e-learning has been facilitated by the developments in technology. At the same time, advances have been made in our understanding of how people learn and what motivates them to learn and this understanding has been incorporated into the developing field of instructional design.

As the hardware, software and communications technologies have matured we have seen a rise in web-based learning facilities. Online distance learning courses that provide facilities for interaction with other students and instructors, access to information repositories and the sharing of data and experiences are now commonplace. Businesses are using the internet to promote interaction and the sharing of knowledge amongst workforce members who may be located anywhere in the world.

E-Learning Failure

It has been suggested that learning technologies have gone through repeated cycles of failure (Rosenberg M.J., 2001). The expectations of the learning technology may often exceed its limitations. This can lead to the development of poorly designed and implemented learning programmes that are found to be ineffective. This leads to frustration and disappointment which then leads to the abandonment of the technology and the return to traditional, tried and tested methods of instruction. The next great learning technology comes along and the cycle is repeated.

Reasons for problems with and the failure of e-learning include:

  • Cost: It is a commonly held mistaken belief that e-learning is the cheaper training option. A well-planned, effectively implemented, thoroughly tested, adequately supported system that exceeds expectations does not come cheap.
  • Over estimating what e-learning can achieve: People are social learners enjoying the interaction and sharing that can be experienced, face to face, in classrooms. This capability is difficult to emulate using e-learning.
  • Self-study requirements: Flexible e-learning programmes are characterised by their requirements for self-study. This may be appropriate for certain topics and for some learners but many adults will not be used to learning in isolation. Successful participants on self-study programmes generally have a well developed internal locus of control.
  • Content quality: One of the most significant factors contributing to the effectiveness of e-learning is the quality of the content. Content needs to be appropriate for the intended audience and for the topics being addressed.
  • Technology issues: Often overlooked by e-learning developers who may expect all users to be equipped with the latest computers. E-learning programmes must be implemented for the end user and thoroughly tested using the technologies that the end user will use.
  • Motivating learners to apply knowledge: E-Learning may often be used to impart new skills. Unless the learner practices those skills then learning will not have taken place. The absence of a tutor, mentor or guide means that learners must motivate themselves which can be a problem for e-learning based training. (Weaver P., 2002)
  • Cognitive overload: The scale and scope of the new learning required of someone undertaking an e-learning programme for the first time can easily overload a learner's working memory. (Tyler-Smith K., 2006)

E-Learning and Self-Study

Statistics show that drop out rates for online learners may be in the region of 70%. This compares with around 15% for classroom based training. This isn't really a surprise as all self-study methods of instruction have suffered in the same way. (Shepherd C., 2003) The Open University reports that up to 35% of new students drop out before their first assignment is required.

Locus of Control

The locus of control concept refers to an individual's belief that their destiny is controlled by themselves or by external forces. These ideas were developed by Julian Rotter in the 1950s, originally distinguishing between two types of people. Those with a strong internal locus of control and those with a strong external locus of control.

Students with a strong internal locus of control are likely to hold the belief that the more they study the better they will perform. They believe that their grades and overall success, on a particular course of study, are determined by their own efforts and abilities.

Students with a strong external locus of control are more likely to believe that their performance and results are the result of fate, luck and factors that are beyond their control.

Those with a strong internal locus of control are more likely to be successful following self-study or distance-learning programmes. They are also more likely to be motivated by achievement and will tend to prefer games based upon skill whereas those with an external locus of control may prefer games based upon chance or luck.

Cognitive Overload

Cognitive Load Theory states that learning is initially processed in working memory (Sweller and Chandler, 1994, Sweller, 1999 and Sweller, Paas & Renkl, 2003). The working memory is low in capacity processing only limited amounts of information at any one time and is short term. Learning new material or skills involves processing this information in the short term working memory and progressively adding this material to the mental models or cognitive schemas that are held in the long-term memory.

Short term memory (sometimes called primary, working or active memory) is said to be able to store 7 plus or minus 2 chunks of information for up to approximately 20 seconds. Long-term memory, contrastingly, can hold unlimited amounts of information indefinitely. Cognitive overload takes place when the short term memory is overloaded. Many of us will have experienced cognitive overload at one time or another. For example, starting a new job wherein you are introduced to numerous people, their roles and names to be remembered, the layout of your new offices, the route to work, the staff handbook, the requirements of your new job etc. This can be experienced as overwhelming. This is the effect of cognitive overload.

Cognitive overload is recognised as a likely contributor to early dropout rates amongst online learners following e-learning programmes. Retention may be improved if learners are supported in order to anticipate, prepare for and recover from the cognitive burden that they may experience early in their course of study.

E-Learning Best Practices

The best-practices related to e-learning include requirements for effective interactive design intended to minimise cognitive overload, providing intuitive and engaging human-machine interfaces, identifying and understanding the needs of the end users and helping to develop their internal locus of control and fostering inclinations towards lifelong learning.

A document that exemplifies the many and varied top-tips that might be considered in relation to e-learning is '701 E-Learning Tips' produced and published by the Masie Centre and available from their website at www.masie.com. The Masie Centre is a learning and technology elab and think tank dedicated to exploring learning and technology. This document is a freely available e-book published in 2004. The book collates the responses received from various people involved in learning and technology when they were asked for tips regarding the deployment of e-learning in organisations. The volume of material reflects the range of considerations that may be applied to e-learning.

E-Learning Standards

The role of any form of 'standard' is to provide rules that everyone can refer to and, ideally, adhere to. The goals of e-learning standards are to provide fixed, defined data structures, communication protocols and support for interoperability between applications. Adherence to defined and agreed standards should address e-learning delivery inefficiencies due to development on multiple platforms and delivery using differing, incompatible systems. (Ellis R.K. 2005)

E-learning standards are being developed by four main organisations: AICC (Aviation Industry CBT Committee), IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), IMS Global learning consortium and ADL (Advanced Distributed Learning).

ADL is a U.S. government sponsored organisation engaged in the research and development of specifications intended to encourage the adoption and advancement of e-learning. They are responsible for the publication of the ADL Shareable Content Object Reference Model which combines the best elements of the AICC, IEEE and IMS specifications into a single document.

SCORM

The Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) was first developed by the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD). It has become the e-learning standard that is widely supported by colleges, universities, corporations and those involved in e-learning development and provision. These standards provide some rules that are intended to ensure that content created by various vendors using various tools will run successfully under various learning management systems (LMSs). The SCORM standards are primarily about interoperability, not quality.

E-Learning Standards and the Classroom Teacher

How do these standards relate to the practical work carried out by the classroom instructor responsible for designing and delivering a course of study? Current e-learning standards tend to fall into 3 basic categories:

  1. Metadata:: This is data about data. How is the learning content labelled and marked up to support indexing, search and retrieval etc.
  2. Content Packaging: These standards are intended to enable the transfer of content from one system to another allowing content to be created, modified, viewed and stored by a variety of standards compliant tools.
  3. Learner Profiles: These standards relate to the information stored, gathered and shared about the learners themselves.

Awareness of these standards will be extremely important to those teachers who are actively involved in curriculum design and content delivery but they do not necessarily address practical questions like:

“How can I encourage the development of an internal locus of control in my students?”

or
“How can I reduce the effects of cognitive overload and improve retention on my course?”

Practical E-Learning Best Practices

For e-learning to be effective, learners need to engage with the learning activities. To achieve this each learner will need to be motivated. Perception of control is one of the crucial factors influencing motivation and thus engagement with learning (Harris R. et al, 2004).

Appendix A presents just a few 'motivation' related tips extracted from '701 E-Learning Tips' produced and published by the Masie Centre.

Minimise the Risk of Cognitive Overload

Teachers and instructional designers need to be aware of the cognitive load imposed upon users and take steps not to overwhelm students with information. (Kumar M.)

An awareness of human cognitive architecture, cognitive psychology theories and how these theories can be applied to the development of effective and usable multimedia courseware will help ensure that users are presented with an engaging and stimulating experience that they are keen to repeat.

The Future of E-Learning

Historically e-learning has been used to support the attainment of defined learning outcomes. As e-learning technologies and systems have advanced from this initial focus they are evolving to be more about access to information, knowledge exchange, collaboration and interaction. A powerful aspect of the efficient and timely delivery of information by electronic means is that it actually reduces the need for and demands for learning. Easy and instantaneous access to required and current information on a subject, presented in a manner that is appropriate to the end user, may mean that the user never needs to take the time to internalise this information through learning (Rosenberg M.J., 2006). The development of e-learning technologies and systems is exposing new and sometimes unexpected opportunities for collaboration, sharing of ideas, access to expert knowledge and opinions and the pooling of intellectual resources.

Collaboration technologies include e-mail, instant messaging, discussion forums and newsgroups, chatrooms and weblogs (blogs). The internet is providing a delivery and communications platform that is supporting ever more sophisticated and engaging utilities that may be considered as e-learning facilities such as wikipedia.com, the free, online encyclopaedia built collaboratively by internet users willing to take time to share their knowledge. Another example is dictionary.com which presents a free online dictionary that goes way beyond the capabilities of a paper dictionary. By providing translations, links to other dictionaries, word of the day, fun and games the experience of using the dictionary is more engaging and powerful than opening a hard-copy dictionary.

Social networks and online communities have seen a period of rapid development as the uptake of broadband internet access has increased. Traditional online communities are generally based around discussion of a particular topic or interest e.g. computer gaming. Social networks, however, do not necessarily involve discussion. Instead members may present their choices in terms of memberships or maybe their favourite websites e.g. del.icio.us which is a social bookmarking site allowing users to share their favourite websites. Flickr.com is another example of how internet technologies are being used to share information allowing users to share images.

Youtube.com is another example of internet based sharing technology enabling users to upload movies. It is very interesting to see how many of these uploaded videos are instructional, covering topics from advanced calculus to flower arranging. Does this mean that we have in fact fulfilled Thomas Edison's 1922 prediction that film would replace the classroom?

The internet has brought the world together in ways that were never predicted. It is now readily possible to follow courses of study presented by various educational establishments all over the world, carry out various forms of paid employment from ones home, creatively and productively interact with people who are geographically far removed from a users own location and much, much more. The internet has supported the sharing of ideas and the pooling of knowledge resulting in students today being exposed to more information in one year than their grandparents were in a lifetime. Lifelong learning has become essential to ensure that workers have the skills and knowledge needed in the ever-changing workplace. The development of these attributes and capabilities can be supported and promoted by means of just-in-time learning strategies that recognise these requirements.

In order to meet ever-changing future needs e-learning must:

  1. Support diversity
  2. Embrace new technologies
  3. Be learner-centred and responsive to learner needs
  4. Support the needs of business and commerce
  5. Be flexible in terms of time and geographic location
  6. Be cost effective and affordable

The next decade will be an interesting time for e-learning and the way in which learning institutions deliver their instruction and courses. A far greater percentage of learning will take place online and the role of the teacher or instructor is likely to change considerably breaking down into multiple distinct positions: curriculum design, content delivery, classroom facilitation and learning support.

References and Bibliography

  1. Rosenberg, M.J., 2001. E-Learning. Strategies for delivering knowledge in the digital age. McGraw-Hill.
  2. CMS Glossary [online] Available from: http://www.bath.ac.uk/internal/web/cms-wp/glossary.html [accessed April 2007]
  3. Letter E Teaching Terms [online] Available from: http://www.teach-nology.com/glossary/terms/e/ [accessed April 2007]
  4. Wikipedia [online] Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-learning [accessed April 2007]
  5. Fischer T., Grau G., Winkler M., Weiss M., 2002 Handbook of Best Practices for the Evaluation of E-Learning Effectiveness [online] Available from: http://www.qual-elearning.net [cited April 2007]
  6. Weaver P., 2002. Preventing e-learning failure: ten common pitfalls and how to avoid them. [online] Available from: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0MNT/is_8_56/ai_90512523/pg_1 [accessed April 2007]
  7. Tyler-Smith K., 2006. Early Attrition among First Time eLearners: A Review of Factors that Contribute to Drop-out, Withdrawal and Non-completion Rates of Adult Learners undertaking eLearning Programmes. [online] Available from: http://jolt.merlot.org/Vol2_No2_TylerSmith.htm [accessed April 2007]
  8. Shepherd C. 2003. Endgame - encouraging completion in e-learning. [online] Available from: http://www.fastrak-consulting.co.uk/tactix/Features/endgame.htm [accessed April 2007]
  9. Sweller, J., & Chandler, P. 1994. Why some material is difficult to learn. Cognition and Instruction, 12, p185-233.
  10. Sweller, J. 1999., Instructional Design in Technical Areas. Melbourne: ACER Press.
  11. Sweller, J., Paas, F., & Renkl, A. 2004. Cognitive Load Theory: Instructional Implications of the Interaction between Information Structures and Cognitive Architecture. Instructional Science 32: p1–8.
  12. Masie. E., 2004. 701 E-Learning Tips. Available from: http://www.masie.com/701tips/ [accessed April 2007]
  13. Ellis R.K. 2005. E-Learning Standards Update. [online] Available from: http://www.learningcircuits.org/ [accessed April 2007]
  14. Harris R. et al 2004. Linking Perceptions of Control and Signs of Engagement in the Process and Content of Collaborative E-Learning. [online] Available from: http://www.networkedlearningconference.org.uk/ [accessed April 2007.]
  15. Kumar M. A critical discourse in multimedia design: A pedagogical perspective to creating engaging online courseware. [online] Available from: http://www.usq.edu.au/ [accessed May 2007.]
  16. Rosenberg M.J., Larson J., 2006. E-Learning: Advancing toward what will be. Beyond E-Learning. Pfeiffer.

Appendix A:

Here are just a few motivation related e-learning tips extracted from the excellent '701 E-Learning Tips' published by the Masie Centre and available for download from: http://www.masie.com/701tips/:

“#411: Cover Your Internal & External Bases
The student's motivation is a key feature for success with e-Learning. Since the motivation is always internal, it is necesary to link the e-Learning course with some emotional experience or need of the student. External recognition helps too!
Sergio Elliot Grupo Doxa”

“#420: Motivating Students
Positive feedback is vital to adult learning motivation. Be sure to notice when students have met their goals.
Nancy Nash MindLeaders”

“#251: Grab Attention & Stimulate Curiosity Within The First Minute Of Instruction
If creating a fast-paced multimedia message without learner control, present verbal explanations in speech rather than writing. If creating a verbal explanation or description of a procedure, present corresponding graphics (e.g. animation, video, illustrations, pictures). If creating multimedia narrated explanations of how something works or descriptions of how to carry out a procedure, present narration using a human voice with a standard accent and organize the narration to include a preview summary outlining the main steps, section headings corresponding to the main steps, and pointer words such as first, second, third, and as a result.
Rose M. Kimberley Soldier Support Institute”